The Female Burden Visualized: Cinematic Representation of Women during Epidemics

The images of a heavily pregnant woman treating patients in hospital and female medical workers visibly distressed as their heads are shaved China during the COVID-19 outbreak have brought into sharp focus gendered dimensions epidemic disease outbreaks. In many parts world this pandemic, majority “front line” “key workers” food sales, health social care, education childcare women. Both scholarly literature from disaster studies development economics has supported claims charities NGOs over years that women girls bear harshest consequences terrible disasters, such floods, earthquakes, droughts (Neumayer Plümper). Recent focusing on outbreaks—particularly regarding Ebola West Africa Zika Brazil—has suggested much same (Smith; Davies Bennett). Frequently, access to sexual reproductive resources been severely compromised (Sochas et al.), something complicated further quarantines isolation when travel is needed (Wenham al., “Gender Mainstreaming”). More than two-thirds 2019 Congo were women, while affliction Sierra Leone 2013 2016, more died obstetric complications itself. However, despite these obvious concerns, it also pointed out we still lack systematic approach outbreaks down gender lines analysis (Harman). survey almost 5,000 articles published found Scopus journal database January 1, 2014, May 15, less 1 percent addressed (Criado Perez). This neglect impacts continued with most recent COVID-19, according new article Lancet “COVID-19”), piece Atlantic entitled “The Coronavirus Disaster for Feminism” (Lewis) numerous references made difficult negotiations taking place at household level about care responsibilities, women’s incomes, dangers isolation—including heightened levels domestic abuse. how societies deal epidemics curious given look history—at least anecdotally—the experience was often very different men boys: increased avenues control sex (and behavior) regulation attendance burials funerals (Arnold; Curtis; Ross), various kinds epidemic-related roles codifiers bodies, caregivers, cleaners, fumigators, leading organizers community or collective welfare provision (Munkhoff; Curtis Han). Just like “feminized” representations famines going back past (Kelleher; Edgerton-Tarpley), distress foregrounded early modern paintings depicting (van Asperen 7, 10–11; Barker). article, try fill void focused by exploring cinema depicted represented experiences using wide range illustrative film examples catalogue 300 twentieth- twenty-first-century epidemic-focused films recently compiled metareview responses diseases (Han Curtis, “Social Responses”). especially important noted visual culture long historical tradition offering deliberate messages—for example, educational documentary first half twentieth century tried emphasize battle against microbe be fought within household—a domain presented predominantly (Ostherr, Cinematic Prophylaxis 4–11). Indeed, healthy body placed center concept nationhood—the state’s power linked roots family organization (Wald 85–86; also, microcosm state see Han 22–27). Furthermore, approaching issues through lens two reasons. First, although not reality, they can affect our thoughts, feelings, values: Stories make sense around us share understanding others. Even highly implausible situations—such those seen apocalyptic zombie movies—are said significant public implications telling act behave (Brown al.; Nasiruddin al.). When accompanied emotive narratives sympathetic relatable characters, become effective mediums delivering messages (Wald; Ostherr, Prophylaxis, “Contagion”; Kendal; Responses”; “Suspicious Minds”). case epidemics, where reflect upon ordinary lives citizens—especially poor marginalized who vulnerable demands outbreak. Put simply, either represents an entrenched view impact societies—shining light what society—or even significantly, works help entrench views values. Second, clear major feature popular media broadly) used fear transmission spread create—in words Priscilla Wald—an “outbreak narrative” informed othering. Literature number lines, being sexuality (especially regard concerning AIDS-HIV; Rees-Roberts 89–128), socioeconomic status migrants), race—where, theories Orientalization othering, typically moves “marginalized,” “deviant,” “underdeveloped” groups “native,” “mainstream,” “developed” society Kendal). “Traditional” communities sometimes “heroically” saved actions well-meaning outsiders expertise Responses” 390). Mirroring attention specifically real life, however, yet systematically analyzed presentation (although form components chapters Wald 68–113; Prophylaxis). Over course show films, consciously directors. extent, nature, direction quite clearly demarcated. portrayed symbolic “carriers” “spreaders” disease—sometimes punishment—and phenomenon connected characters deviating “expected” prescribed them epidemics. tied moralizing sexuality—termed some “sexual epidemic” reference outbreak’s capacity provide authorities unparalleled bodies series codes inscribing them, justifying discourse (Singer 117). one frequently take heavy burdens outbreaks—often “selflessly” caring extreme cases, leads sacrificing themselves “greater good” wider protect male protagonist. Accordingly, both mutually reinforcing. Although, course, changes nuancing occur time societal values—aspects observed another earliest productions post-2000 across diversity cultural contexts filmmaking. It once remarked “invisibility contagion” pinned “concreate embodiment ‘otherness’” other “potentially invisible aspects identity, race sexuality” “Contagion” 1). understand representation epidemics: carrier spreader. use image personify particular disease, history—for medieval imaginary, leprous blood menstruation, supposedly discharged impure believed (Zimmerman). Miasma-informed rationale decisions ban plague outbreaks—with warnings presence danger contaminated air rising graves (Noordegraaf Valk 120, 134). history, related strongly stigmatization prejudice. Arguably famous “Typhoid Mary”: appellation bestowed Mary Mallon, Irish cook working New York part unknowingly every she worked. term morally coded: unclean “fallen woman,” condemned her activity unmarried (Echeverría, “Women Who Killed”; 108). Focus put spending evenings “disreputable looking man” room full “filth disorder” 84). reflected connection between perceived role “spreaders”—in particular, persecution scapegoating witches plagues. As might expected, derived dramatization original source material tend avoid worst problems anachronism—for correctly representing witch hunting (sixteenth seventeenth centuries, especially). well-known Dangerous Beauty (Marshall Herskovitz, 1998), based story sixteenth-century Venetian courtesan, later becomes target church-led inquisition breaks out, Last Valley (James Clavell, 1971), set context political religious struggles Thirty Years’ War (1618–48) Central Europe, conflict go hand-in-hand accusation rural witches. Similar scenes lesser-known Swedish Himlaspelet (Alf Sjöberg, 1942) which peasants marry until village, protagonist, Marit, burnt alive identified “spreader.” Mariken van Nieumeghen (Jos Stelling, 1974)—a revered entered Cannes Film Festival, play written Middle Dutch sixteenth century—a woman, Marieke, travels Nijmegen Antwerp, ultimately blamed because had cohabited seven devil. Other links drawn Black Death mid-fourteenth witches, wholly anachronistic (Black 192), premise formed central critically Ingmar Bergman’s Seventh Seal (1957) acclaimed British comedy Monty Python Holy Grail (Terry Gilliam/Terry Jones, 1975), accused weigh duck therefore wood hence witch. trends contemporary film. For Season Witch (Dominic Sena, 2011), (Claire Foy) explicitly causing Death—in process forcefully escorted isolated monastery knights recompense (Nicolas Cage Ron Perlman). Not only literal infection, (Christopher Smith, 2010), Langiva (Carice Houten), village herbalist, causal catalyst Osmund (Eddie Redmayne), turning “evil” himself—seeing all potential misogynistically brutally torturing them. trend Norwegian Trollsyn (Ola Solum, 1994) initial stages physically aggressive peasant villager. unsurprising then cinematic history. shown United Public Health Service's documentary, How Disease Spread (1924), inappropriate taken middle-class white runs contrary prevailing guardians private sphere—and thus front line crises Prophylactics moralizes escapes participate commercialized leisure activity—in infecting man tuberculosis, “innocent” youth, damningly, naval serviceman. narrative militarized; failure others “germ invasion” means cannot country’s physical borders. trope confined either. Korean Life’s Enemy: Cholera [Insaeng ŭi ku: hoyŏlja] (Kim Sorang, 1920), cholera create scales: A justification “modernizing” practices colonial authority Japan (diseases associated feudal past), shared similar Taiwan 1919 (Lee 115–16), but emphasis domestic, largely responsibility, zooming confines contrasting homes (Chung, 2014). Japanese Diseases [Byodoku no denpa] (Sanae Yamamoto, 1926), scene suggests woman’s “carelessness” affects family, city large. Moving time, themes documentaries World II, Borne Two Wings (UK Office, 1945) malaria threat mosquitos symbolized predatory promiscuous women—“Noffie Skita” daughter “Anophilina” (Peckham 308; Fedunkiw 1049–50). scene, soldier kissing he himself gets stung “Noffie,” provoking him kill mosquito. malarial parasites meanwhile group corrupted drinking partying “temptress” linking personal blame attributed “deviant” behavior—an aspect predictably present sexually transmitted (Pernick 24; Parascandola). sexualized operates three levels: “tempting” military man, “predatory” mosquito, “corrupting” parasites. should associations too. silent film, Die Pest Florenz (Otto Rippert, 1919), conceptualized “beautiful seductress.” decision-making vulnerability period before II. 80,000 Suspects (Val Guest, 1963), emergence localized smallpox small town Bath framed distinctly moral issue. pursuit final ends up feet Ruth Preston (Yolande Donlan), affair protagonist Dr. Steven Monks (Richard Johnson). condemnation magnified developments—the fact Ruth’s husband medic, importantly, wife actually contracts dies smallpox. Elsewhere, US Crazies (George A. Romero, 1973), contagious virus caused water supplies—creating people homicidal tendencies—was code named “Trixie”; shortened names Beatrix, Beatrice, Patricia. Later infected Artie Liberty), attempts rape his daughter, Kathy (Lynn Lowry), prevented outside intervention. Nevertheless, viewer encouraged pity rapist—who hangs himself—whereas “punished”: shot dead soldiers next day (Williams 71–72). Significantly, cinema—in widely renowned Contagion (Steven Soderbergh, 2011). East “loose morals”—Beth Emhoff (Gwyneth Paltrow)—whose decision extramarital spreading infection (while “selfishly” already conscious symptoms). Supporting Macau casino, reminiscent cocktail lounges nightclubs frequented “dubious virtue” Hollywood noirs 1940s 1950s 308). German Der Medicus (Philipp Stölzl, 2013)—a drama English orphan, Rob (Tom Payne), Persia learn medicine polymath Ibn Sina (Ben Kingsley)—the appear. Overall, itself anachronism: die eleventh century, centuries after end First Plague Pandemic start Second (even if temporal pandemics now beginning debated). protagonists, Rebecca (Emma Rigby), afflicted so-called abandoned husband. She nursed recovery impregnated him. subsequently sentenced death stoning rely last-minute reprieve “white knight” impending execution. spreader furthermore zombie-pandemic “end humanity” crossover movies. Train Busan (Sang-ho Yeon, 2016), takes root reckless young running onto train unnoticed, passengers. 28 Days (Danny Boyle, 2002), origins animal rights activist—her logical punishment rage. urgency patriarchal oppression scientist immediately exclaiming, “We her!” (Adesola Mafe 20). recurring appears genre: Rabid (David Cronenburg, 1977; remade Jen Soska Sylvia Soska, 2019), rabies off (Marilyn Chambers), develops phallic stinger. Most victims male—with particularly instructive leering customer pornographic cinema, ending Rose’s corpse literally tossed away garbage truck (Weinstock 63–64). Throughout history produced today, misogynistic chauvinistic produced—pushing background, limiting agency, creating cliched stereotypical roles, presenting limited skill compared protagonists. scientific large array archetypal characteristics) (Steinke, “Cultural Representations,” “Portrait,” Scientists”; Flicker; Kasi Jackson; Hassel), immune trend. Flu Sung-su, 2013), experienced educated doctor (Soo Ae) effectively entirely reliant efforts Ji-goo, Emergency Response Team member (Jang Hyuk). rendered passive, herself again “saved” Ji-goo’s “heroic” decisive actions. Chinese box-office hit Wolf Warrior 2 (Wu Jing, 2017), centering “Lamanla” (based loosely Ebola) unnamed region (entrenching “Africa” same), UN Rachel Prescott Smith (Celina Jade), refuses evacuate—asserting desperate need specific knowledge—and swept vehicle lead Jing), exclaims, “Don’t any trouble me!” examples, recognize context: Asian way appease demand “hyper masculinity” valorize masculine protection (Louie). elements exist mainstream Western traditions. epidemiologist, Susan (Eva Green), Perfect Sense Mackenzie, 2011)—a centered fictional attacking five human senses—is professional, presents divorced laboratory, together neurotic unstable behavior patterns. Perhaps visually active agents (Schweitzer). expectations broader humanities above, “centering women” providing exceptional burden. lines: forced selflessly above beyond call duty—in endangering own lives, “common good.” These certainly earlier King Vidor’s Citadel (1938), Andrew Manson’s (the Oscar-nominated Robert Donat) tuberculosis mining South Wales valleys leaves mentally scarred. On downward spiral, behind “medical principles” enticed wealthy London hypochondriacs. Although friend, Denny (Ralph Richardson), malpractice unprofessional surgeon plays role, mentioned return towards “original calling” mainly stimulated attention, devotion, advice wife, Christine (Rosalind Russell). caregiving sacrificial end: involved car accident infertile. J. Cronin novel, step further—Christine (shortly resolving differences husband), though included (McKibben). usually, stay true rewarded salvation. Egyptian 1947, Sixth Day (Youssef Chahine, 1986), laundry (Dalida) midst doing things: resisting romantic advances younger man—despite aspirations dreams. told Italian Storia di una capinera (Franco Zeffirelli, 1993), third adaptation novel Giovanni Verga (1871) mid-nineteenth nun, Maria (Angela Bettis), leave convent Catania, Sicily, due Through tempted life convent—falling love Nino (Johnathon Schaech)—but makes serving God church. cases theme angle. Blonde Saint (Svende Gade, 1926) selfless (Lewis Stone)—looking stricken (again Sicily)—which allows secure Anne Bellamy (Doris Kenyon), fend rival (Malcolm Denny). hidden veneer assertiveness. example Blindness (Fernando Meirelles, 2008), Portuguese name (José Saramago, 1995). (Julianne Moore) ophthalmologist (Mark Ruffalo) characters—a leader facility—and typical caregiving, guidance, support tasks. forgiving husband’s unfaithfulness, continues immediate needs partner, ensure safety ward, eventually escape institution—guiding followers safety, violence men. Similarly, Z (Marc Forster, 2013)—depicting global struggle “zombie plague”—the Karin (Mireille Enos) starts apparent “breadwinner,” Gerry (Brad Pitt) kitchen making pancakes children. Yet pandemic hold, reverse, familiar saving children (Doyle). spends waiting phone husband—with revealing typing GERRY satellite phone, simply types HOME (Rodriguez). Children Men (Alfonso Cuarón, 2006), 1992 P. D. James, future success post-epidemic rides basic capacities. revolves lone earth (Clare-Hope Ashitey) holds key existence flu widespread infertility “Liquid Cinematography”). shows responding epidemic, risking greater good. Ally Hextall (Jennifer Ehle) night secured lab isolate develop serum. end, disregards regulations risks testing vaccine herself. situation WHO epidemiologist sent Hong Kong find MEV-1 pathogen. lied kidnapped official, Sun Feng (Chin Han), leverage obtain vaccines family’s Orantes (Marion Cotillard) educating local realizing placebos instead vaccines, voluntarily returns help. acting “saviors” CDC officials. Erin Mears (Kate Winslet), Epidemic Intelligence Officer, begins investigating Minneapolis Despite colleague, concern whom come contact. act, passes coat sick person warmth dying. plane intended evacuate diverts pick “important” contrasts promptly zipped bag thrown mass burial site—a cold brutal emphasizes unacknowledged prominent caregiver responses—even “transformation” attitudes, values, character dealing disease. Painted Veil (John Curran, (W. Somerset Maugham, 1925), Kitty Fane (Naomi Watts), initially negatively vain socialite